Abstract
Scientific exploration of the deep sea over the past 40 years has identified several geological and geochemical processes leading to the concentration of metals in nodules, hydrothermal sulfides and manganese crusts. These mineralizations are generated by specifically active submarine processes. In recent years, the identification of their economic potential has led to applications for exploration permits. In international waters, theInternational Seabed Authority (ISA) has granted 19 new permits since 2010. To develop these subsea activities, we need to clarify the potential impacts of exploration and exploitation on ecosystems, and define the ecosystem services they provide. The effectiveness of exploration, scientific knowledge and environmental management activities is closely linked to the development of deep-sea technologies.
