The establishment of biblical traditions : from the end of the second millennium to the Hellenistic period (reprise)

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The first session briefly reviewed the main contexts of emergence of the texts that would later form the Hebrew Bible : from the ^2nd millennium BC to the Hellenistic and even Roman periods. We have already outlined three points to bear in mind when studying the formation of the Hebrew Bible : avoidance of anachronism (none of these texts was written with the intention of becoming a biblical text, i.e. a text to which theologians will ascribe inspired status or which will be considered a religiously authoritative text) ; the Bible is a literature of crisis (many texts react, in fact, to political, economic and religious crises) ; the problematic use of the term " canon " (this term clearly originates from the Christian milieu, which wishes to see these texts as a coherent whole, whereas Jewish tradition sees them more as a juxtaposition [TaNaK] of writings, which do not have the same importance).

First mention of Israel

The first traces of the birth of Israel date from this period of change (Merenptah stele [- 1205]) ; this " Israel " must have been located in the mountainous region of Ephraim. At the end of the ^13th century , there was already an entity with vague outlines, which a little more than two centuries later would give its name to a kingdom.

First mentions of Yhwh

As the name Israel suggests, we can assume that this population did not originally worship the god Yhwh, but the deity El. One hypothesis is that the god Yhwh made his appearance in this region of the Levant via the nomadic Shasu group (list of Amenophis III [- 1370], relief from the Temple of Amun at Karnak [- 1290 to - 1280]), originally from the territories of Edom, Seir and Araba at the time of the transition between the Late Bronze and Iron Ages. We can therefore assume that Yhwh originated from sudiste , which is also corroborated by several biblical texts (Jg 5; Dt 33,2) evoking theophanies. Similarly, it is probable that the traditions of Moses and Sinai are located more on the Midian side than the current (Christian) location, namely Jebel Musa, in the south of the Sinai peninsula, suggests. The Kuntillet 'Ajrud inscriptions, which refer to a " Yhwh de Téman ", also point in this direction. These traditions have probably been preserved in the form of " traces of memory " (Assmann), which describe how Israel became Yhwh's people.

Jacob's traditions

In addition to the earliest mentions of Israel and Yhwh, we can also trace Jacob's traditions back to the ^2nd millennium BC. Gen 31:45-54* probably preserves the description of a separation between two clans (Jacob and Laban), in the geographical area of Gilead (before the monarchic period).

The beginnings of kingship

The biblical presentation of the origins of kingship is based on a Judean (southern) perspective, according to which the northern kingdom (Israel) was rejected by Yhwh in favor of the kingdom of Judah. This ideology is largely reflected in the narrative opposition between Saul and David, as presented in 1-2 Samuel.

Oral traditions of the origins of kingship

These accounts are based on oral and legendary traditions, but probably retain some traces of historical events. Two main traditions can be identified, dating back to the ^10th century B.C., and probably independent of each other in origin : that of the origins of Saul's kingship, of " nordiste " origin, where he is presented in a positive way ; that of the origins of David's kingship and his succession. However, it is impossible to reconstruct the original stories on a literary level, as oral traditions are constantly subject to modification and enrichment.

The apogee of the kingdom of Israel : the Omrides and Jeroboam II

Contrary to biblical testimony, it was the northern kingdom, Israel and its capital Samaria, that was the most prosperous, as testified by several external sources (Mesha stele). It was also in Samaria that the beginnings of literary practice in Israel can probably be traced (^9th c. BC) under the Omri dynasty (cf. also the Aramaic inscription of Deir Alla). This practice can be seen as a logical consequence of the establishment of a centralized royal administration.

Oral traditions from the North

We can trace the origins of several oral traditions that would later enter the TaNaK at this period (the cycles of Elijah and Elisha ; traditions of the Judges (or " saviors ").

Jeroboam II

Contrary to what the biblical account suggests, it was indeed the reign of Jeroboam " II " (^8th century BC) that extended the influence of the kingdom of Israel (probably also over the kingdom of Judah). We are probably dealing here with a reinterpretation of history by the biblical writers, dividing Jeroboam's reign into two kings. It is likely that many traditions emerged or were brought together during the reign of Jeroboam in the ^eighth century BC : identification of the god-nation of Israel with the Exodus god ; attachment of the sanctuary of Bethel to the figure of Yhwh and recourse to the tradition of Jacob (who becomes a national ancestor). It is probable that Jeroboam II continued King Jehu's policy of making Yhwh the official god of the northern kingdom, notably by writing down certain traditions.

Prophetic scrolls

Some prophetic scrolls can also be traced back to this period (Amos and Hosea, even Isaiah).

The Assyrian era : the fall of Samaria (-722), the abortive siege of Jerusalem (-701) and the reform of Josiah (-622)

During the Assyrian Empire's takeover of the Levant, its rhetoric and propaganda strongly influenced Judean scribes, who took up Assyrian rhetoric and ideology and adapted it to describe Yhwh's role in relation to his people. This century of Assyrian occupation (until the reformation of Josiah) was decisive for the writing of the texts that would end up in the Hebrew Bible.

Modification of the term " Israel

One of the effects of the fall of Samaria (- 722) was to modify the use of the term " Israel " in the tradition: the southern kingdom of Judah, which took on greater political and demographic importance, was able to claim the title " Israel " to show that the true Israel was the kingdom of Judah, i.e. the true people of Yhwh. " Israel " then lost its political meaning to become a theological term.

Hezekiah

Hezekiah's reign was an important one, strengthening the ideology of the sanctity of Jerusalem, Mount Zion, and paving the way for the centralization of Yhwh worship in Jerusalem under Josiah. The failure of the Assyrian siege of Jerusalem (-701) was interpreted as a victory and a sign of Yhwh's power protecting his city and temple. It is possible that Hezekiah undertook several reforms and literary activities during his reign (writing of several scrolls, strengthening of the Yahwist cult, first edition of the Book of Kings).

Josiah

A spectacular expansion of the Jerusalem library took place during the reign of Josiah. It is assumed that it was during this period that major literary collections began to be published, in particular the Deuteronomistic history (Dt; Jos; Jg [of Nordic tradition] ; 1-2 Sam ; 1-2 R). Assyrian influence can be observed in several of these books : the book of Deuteronomy takes up the rhetoric of the exclusivity of loyalty oaths (notably the loyalty oath of Assarhaddon [- 672]), transferring it to Yhwh ; the book of Joshua takes up the imaginary and rhetoric of Assyrian war ideology. As for 1-2 Sam and 1-2 R, a first written version was probably produced by Josianic scribes who revised older texts, taking up Saul's northern traditions and constructing them in contrast to the story of David's (southern) rise.

Other scrolls undoubtedly saw the light of day in this period : the Exodus scroll with a story of Moses' birth that resembles that of Sargon ; the revision of the first Isaiah scroll from an anti-Assyrian perspective ; the revision and ensemble of certain prophetic scrolls from the time of Jeroboam (Hosea, Amos, Micah, [Zephaniah]).

The Babylonian exile and the questioning of traditional identity structures

The destruction of Jerusalem (- 587), preceded by the first deportation of the Judean elite (- 597), provoked an enormous cultural shock (collapse of traditional ideological, political and cultic pillars). In response to this crisis, numerous scrolls were written, while others were revised. Contact with Babylon also encouraged the writing of origin stories (Creation and Flood, Tower of Babel), inspired by the great Babylonian epics and myths (Gilgamesh, Enuma Elish, Atrah-Hasis). The revision of Deuteronomistic history probably took place in Babylon, since it presupposes the crisis of exile and invents the concept of the " empty country " during the exilic period. The exile became the result of the anger of Yhwh, who sent the Babylonians and their allies against his people and their kings who had not respected his commandments. The situation in the country also allowed the emergence of new texts : a version of the story of Abraham, the Book of Lamentations, texts produced by intellectuals who remained in the country.

The Persian era and the compilation of the Torah, the revision of prophetic texts and the Writings (wisdom, news)

This period is essential for the formation of the Hebrew Bible, since it is really when it was born. A theological tradition of " restoration " was established, made possible by the Persian Empire (much appreciated by the biblical authors). The liberation of peoples from Babylonian oppression and the announcement of a new creation found in Deutero-Esaiah reflect the enthusiasm of the first decades of the Persian era.

While the early Persian period saw the establishment of the priestly document (composed of texts found in Gen 1-Ex 40* and abbreviated P) and its legislation (code of holiness [Lev 17-26]), as well as the book of Numbers, the late Persian period saw the promulgation of the Torah (Pentateuch).

It was also during this period that the prophetic library was built up: with the exception of Jonah, probably all the prophetic books existed in Persian times (although the revision of these texts continued in Hellenistic times). This conclusion " perse " of the collection of Prophets later gave rise to an idea attested in the Talmud, according to which the Persian period signifies the end of prophecy.

The Ptolemaic and Seleucid periods (4th-2nd c. BC)

Following the fall of the Persian Empire (Alexander 333 BC), Judea was first integrated into the Ptolemaic Empire and then into the Seleucid Empire. The encounter with Hellenism was rich for literature in Judea, notably with the establishment of wisdom literature (Pr; Qo; [Sir]; Ct) as well as more " romanticized " texts (Est; Rt). The Book of Daniel, meanwhile, reflects the upheavals under the Maccabees and incorporates apocalyptic thinking. The Chronicles also date from this period.

Although these different sets of texts were written at this time, they were not yet part of the Hebrew Bible, which did not yet exist in its tripartite form.

The Roman era : destruction of the temple, establishment of the Ketubîm, Pharisaic Judaism

Indeed, it was under Roman rule that the Ketubîm were finally established and the TaNaK more or less defined (^2nd c. AD) by the Pharisees, who represented the new face of Judaism. Following the destruction of the Temple (+70), the new Judaism radically changed : sacrificial worship was abandoned in favor of synagogal worship. Judaism then became a religion of the book, promoting the literature that had emerged in various crises to provide keys to interpretation (Pharisaic monopoly). The Hebrew Bible was born at roughly the same time as the Christian Bible.